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Nero, Cistophorus, Ephesos mint (silver coin replica) 51 AD.
OBV: NERONI · CLAVD · CAES · DRVSO · GERM. Drap. bust l.
R: COS DES / PRINC / IVVENT on shield, all within laurel wreath.
Original worth c. 15,000 DM (LANZ München auction no. 72).
From Wikipedia,
the free encyclopedia:
Nero
Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (December
15, 37–June
9, 68),
born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called (50–54)
Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus, was the fifth and last Roman
Emperor of the Julio-Claudian
dynasty. On February
25, 50 Nero
became heir to the then-Emperor, his grand-uncle and adoptive father Claudius,
as Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus, succeeding to the throne on October
13, 54 with
Claudius' death. In 66
he added the prefix Imperator
to his name. In 68
Nero was deposed. His subsequent death was reportedly the result of suicide
assisted by his scribe
Epaphroditos.
Sources on Nero
In discussing Nero's life
and reign, it should be noted that the primary
sources may not be reliable. These works were mainly written by the
Roman historians Suetonius
and Tacitus,
both of whom were of Senatorial rank, and who wrote half a century after
the events they describe. Their description of the events of Nero's
reign are suspect because Nero was known to persecute elements of the
Senatorial class.
Family
Born in Antium
(modern day Anzio),
he was the only son of Gnaeus
Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina
the younger, sister and reputed lover of Caligula.
His father was grandson
to an elder Gnaeus
Domitius Ahenobarbus and Aemilia
Lepida through their son Lucius
Domitius Ahenobarbus. He was also great-grandson to Mark
Antony and Octavia
through their daughter Antonia
Major.
His mother was the
namesake of her own mother Agrippina
the elder who was granddaughter to Octavia's brother Caesar
Augustus and his wife Scribonia
through their daughter Julia
Caesaris and her husband Marcus
Vipsanius Agrippa. His maternal grandfather Germanicus
was himself grandson to Tiberius
Claudius Nero and Livia,
adoptive grandson to her second husband Caesar
Augustus, nephew and adoptive son of Tiberius,
son of Drusus
through his wife Antonia
Minor (sister to Antonia Major), and brother to Claudius.
For a complete picture
of his family relationships, it is useful to consult the article Julio-Claudian
Family Tree.
Birth under Caligula
Lucius Domitius
Ahenobarbus was born on December
15, 37. At
the time he was not expected to ever become Augustus.
His maternal uncle Caligula
had only started his own reign on March
16 of that year at the age of twenty-five. His predecessors Octavian
and Tiberius had lived to become seventy-six and seventy-nine
respectively. Providing that Caligula
lived long enough to match them, he could produce his own heirs.
Lucius would come to the
attention of his uncle soon after his birth. Agrippina reportedly asked
her brother to name the child. This would be an act of favor and would
mark the child as a possible heir to his uncle. However Caligula only
offered to name his nephew Claudius
after their lame and stuttering uncle, apparently implying that he was
as unlikely to become Augustus as Claudius.
The relationship between
brother and sister would soon apparently improve. A prominent scandal
early in the new reign was Caligula's particularly close relationship to
his three sisters Drusilla,
Julia
Livilla, and Agrippina. All three are featured with their brother in
Roman
currency of the time. The three women seem to have gained his favor
and likely some amount of influence. The writings of Josephus,
Suetonius,
and Dio
Cassius report on their reputed sexual relationship with their
brother. Drusilla's sudden death in 38
would apparently only serve to ensure this belief: she was reportedly
Caligula's favorite and was consequently buried with the honors of an
Augusta. Caligula proceeded in having her deified, the first woman in
Roman history to achieve this honor.
Lucius had then become
the son of an influential and notorious woman. But she would soon lose
her position by her brother. Caligula had remained childless. His
closest male relatives at the time were his brothers-in-law Marcus
Aemilius Lepidus (husband of Drusilla), Marcus
Vinicius (husband of Livilla), and Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus
(husband of Agrippina). They were the likely heirs should Caligula die
early. However, after the death of his wife, Lepidus apparently lost his
chances, though not his ambitions, to succeed his brother-in-law.
Conspiracies
In September
39 Caligula
left Rome
with his escort, heading north to join his legions
in a campaign against the Germanic
tribes. The campaign had to be postponed for the following year due
to Caligula's preoccupation with a conspiracy against him. Reportedly
Lepidus had managed to become lover to both Agrippina and Livilla,
apparently seeking their help in gaining the throne. Consequently, he
was immediately executed. Caligula also ordered the execution of Gnaeus
Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus, the popular Legate
of Germania
Superior, and his replacement with Servius
Sulpicius Galba. However, it remains uncertain whether he was
connected to Lepidus' conspiracy. Agrippina and Livilla were soon exiled
to the Pontian
islands. Lucius was presumably separated from his mother at this point.
Lucius' father died of edema
in 40. Lucius
was now effectively an orphan
with an uncertain fate under the increasingly erratic Caligula. His luck
would change again the following year. On January
24, 41
Caligula, his wife Caesonia
Milonia, and their infant daughter Julia
Drusilla were murdered by a conspiracy under Cassius
Chaera. The Praetorian
Guard helped Claudius gain the throne. Among Claudius' first
decisions was the recalling of his nieces from exile.
Agrippina was soon
remarried to the wealthy Gaius
Sallustius Crispus Passienus. He died between 44
and 47, and
Agrippina was reportedly suspected of poisoning him in order to inherit
his fortune. Lucius was the only heir to his now-wealthy mother.
Adoption by Claudius
Ten-year-old Lucius was
still considered unlikely to ever gain the throne. Claudius, fifty-seven
years old at this point, had reigned longer than his predecessor and
arguably more effectively. Claudius had already had three marriages. He
had married Plautia
Urgulanilla and Aelia
Paetina as a private citizen. He was married to Valeria
Messalina as an Augustus. They had two children, Britannicus
(b. 41) and Octavia
(b. 42).
Messalina was still only twenty-five years old and likely to produce
more heirs.
Messalina, however, was
executed in 48,
accused of conspiring against her husband. The ambitious Agrippina soon
set her sights upon replacing her deceased aunt. On January
1, 49 she
became the fourth wife of Tiberius
Claudius Nero Caesar Drusus. The marriage would last for five years.
Early in the year 50
the Roman
Senate offered Agrippina the honorable title of Augusta, previously
only held by Livia
(14-29).
On February
25, 50
Lucius was officially adopted by Claudius as Nero Claudius Caesar
Drusus (see adoption
in Rome). Nero was older than his adoptive brother Britannicus and
effectively became heir to the throne at the time of his adoption.
Claudius honored his
adoptive son in several ways. Nero was proclaimed an adult in 51
at the age of fourteen. He was appointed proconsul,
entered and first addressed the Senate, made joint public appearances
with Claudius, and was featured in coinage. In 53
he married his adoptive sister Octavia.
Becoming Augustus
Claudius died on October
13, 54, and
Nero was soon established as Augustus in his place. He was seventeen
years old, the youngest Emperor yet. Historians generally consider Nero
to have acted as a figurehead early in his reign. Actual decisions were
likely to have been left to the more capable hands of his mother Agrippina
the younger (whom Tacitus claims poisoned Claudius), his tutor Seneca,
and the praefectus praetorianus Burrus.
The first five years under Nero became known as examples of fine
administration, even resulting in the coinage of the term "Quinquennium
Neronis".
The matters of the Empire
were handled effectively and the Senate enjoyed a period of renewed
influence in state affairs. Problems, however, would soon arise from
Nero's personal life and the increasing competition for influence among
Agrippina and the two male advisers. Nero was reportedly unsatisfied
with his marriage and tended to neglect Octavia. He entered an affair
with Claudia
Acte, a former slave. In 55.
Agrippina attempted to intervene in favor of Octavia and demanded that
her son dismiss Acte. Burrus and Seneca, on the other hand, chose to
support their charge's decision.
Nero resisted the
intervention of his mother in his personal affairs. Her influence over
her son declining, Agrippina turned to a younger candidate for the
throne. Fifteen-year-old Britannicus was still legally a minor under the
charge of Nero but was approaching legal adulthood. Britannicus was a
likely heir to Nero and ensuring her influence over him could strengthen
her position. However, the youth died suddenly and suspiciously on February
12, 55. His
proclamation as an adult had been set for February
13. The timing suggests poisoning and Burrus is suspected to have
been involved in this murder. As Nero grew angrier at Agrippina’s
unofficial rule through him, he began to plot his own mother’s murder,
justifying his tactics by claiming she was conspiring against him, which
was not the case. Agrippina's power soon further declined while Burrus
and Seneca jointly became the most influential men in Rome. Nero was so
furious with his mother, Agrippina, because she was sharing the power
with him, that he told soldiers to kill her. It was said that he was
"haunted" by his mother's ghosts later on.
A series of scandals
While his advisers took
care of affairs of state, Nero surrounded himself with a circle of
favorites. Roman historians report nights of drunken revelry and
violence while more mundane matters of politics were neglected. Among
his new favorites was Marcus
Salvius Otho. By all accounts Otho was as dissolute as Nero but
served as a good and intimate friend to him. Some sources even consider
them to be lovers. Otho early introduced Nero to one particular woman
who would marry first the favorite (Otho) and then the Emperor: Poppaea
Sabina, described as a woman of great beauty, charm, and wit. Gossip
of Nero, Otho, and Poppaea each forming parts of a love triangle can be
found in numerous sources (Plutarch
Galba 19.2-20.2; Suetonius
Otho iii.1-2;
Tacitus
two versions: Histories
1.13.3-4;
Annals
xiii.45-46;
and Dio
Cassius lxi.11.2-4).
By 58,
Poppaea had become established in her position as Nero's favorite
mistress. The following year (59)
would mark a turning point in the emperor's reign. Nero and/or Poppaea
reportedly machinated the murder of Agrippina. Seneca attempted to
convince the Senate that she was orchestrating a conspiracy against her
son, but the reputation of the Emperor was damaged beyond repair by this
case of matricide.
Otho was soon also removed from the imperial court, and sent to Lusitania
as governor.
The next turning point
would be the year 62,
for several reasons.
The first would be a
change of guard amongst Nero's advisers. Burrus died and Seneca asked
Nero for permission to retire from public affairs. Their replacement as
praetorian praefect and counselor was Gaius
Ofonius Tigellinus. Tigellinus had been exiled in 39
by Caligula on charges of adultery with both Agrippina and Livilla, only
to be recalled from exile by Claudius. Ambitious, Tigellinus managed to
become a favorite of Nero (and, reputedly, his lover). Along with
Poppaea he was considered to hold greater influence with the Augustus
than Seneca ever could. One theory suggests that Poppaea attempted, in
the four years prior (58-62),
to separate Nero from his counselors and friends; in this case, what
happened to Burrus and Seneca may not have been casual.
The second significant
event of the year was the divorce of the Emperor. Nero was now
twenty-five years old, had reigned for eight years, and had yet to
produce an heir. When Poppaea became pregnant, Nero finally decided to
marry his mistress, but his marriage to Octavia had to be dissolved
before doing so. At first he resorted to accusing her of adultery.
However, Nero had already gained a reputation for this offense while
Octavia was reputed to be an example of virtue. Some testimony was
needed against her, but torturing one of her slaves only produced the
famous declaration of Pythias
reporting the genitalia of Octavia to be cleaner than the mouth of
Tigellinus. Nero proceeded to declare the divorce on grounds of infertility,
leaving him free to marry Poppaea and wait for her to give birth.
However, the sudden death of Octavia on June
9, 62
resulted in incidents of public protest. In 66,
Though Nero doted on Poppaea, whom he married twelve days after this
divorce, he kicked her to death while she was pregnant and ill, because
she complained that he came home late from the races. Poppaea had borne
him a daughter, Claudia Augusta, who died in infancy. Nero still lacked
an heir.
One of the earliest
effects of Tigellinus' advancement was the introduction of a series of treason
laws; numerous capital sentences were carried out. During the same year,
Nero executed two of his few remaining relatives:
Disturbed peace and
major rebellions
In 61
AD a major rebellion broke out in the new province of Britannia,
centered upon the native tribal leader Boudicca,
Queen of the Iceni,
who had been flogged and whose daughters had been raped by the Romans.
The rebellion was eventually crushed, but the military and civilian
casualties and the total destruction of three cities were a heavy toll
to pay. The fault of Nero in this rebellion is debatable but there was
certainly an impact (both positive and negative) upon the prestige of
his regime.
Great Fire of Rome
On the night July
18 to July
19, 64 the Great
fire of Rome erupted. The fire started in densely populated areas
like the Suburra,
in which had been built the insulae,
wooden dwellings, built on three or four floors. Nero was reportedly
vacationing in his native Anzio
but had to return in haste. The fire burned for a week. Rumor circulated
that Nero had played his lyre
and sang, on top of Quirinal
Hill, while the city burned. (Tacitus, Ann. xv;
Suetonius, Nero xxxvii;
Dio Cassius, R.H. lxii.)
Over the years, this turned to a legend that Nero had fiddled
as Rome burned, an impossible act as the fiddle had not yet been
invented. The same accounts depict him opening his palaces to provide
shelter for the homeless
and arranging for food supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation
among the survivors. However, Nero lost his chances at redeeming his
reputation when he immediately produced plans of rebuilding Rome in a
monumental –and less inflammable – style.
The confused population
searched for a scapegoat
and soon rumors held Nero responsible. The motivation attributed to him
was intending to immortalize his name by renaming Rome to "Neropolis".
Nero had to engage in scapegoating of his own and chose for his target a
small Eastern sect called Christians.
He ordered known Christians to be thrown to the lions
in arenas,
while others were crucified
in large numbers.
Gaius
Cornelius Tacitus, a Roman historian, has preserved a record of this
affair. We quote the following from his Annals (xv.44):
-
"And so, to get
rid of this rumor, Nero set up [i.e., falsely accused] as the
culprits and punished with the utmost refinement of cruelty a class
hated for their abominations, who are commonly called Christians.
Nero’s scapegoats (the Christians) were the perfect choice because
it temporarily relieved pressure of the various rumors going around
Rome. Christus,
from whom their name is derived, was executed at the hands of the procurator
Pontius
Pilate in the reign of Tiberius.
Checked for a moment, this pernicious superstition again broke out,
not only in Iudaea,
the source of the evil, but even in Rome... Accordingly, arrest was
first made of those who confessed; then, on their evidence, an
immense multitude was convicted, not so much on the charge of arson
as because of [their] hatred for the human race. Besides being put
to death they were made to serve as objects of amusement; they were
clothed in the hides of beasts and torn to death by dogs; others
were crucified, others set on fire to serve to illuminate the night
when daylight failed. Nero had thrown open his grounds for the
display, and was putting on a show in the circus,
where he mingled with the people in the dress of charioteer
or drove about in his chariot. All this gave rise to a feeling of
pity, even towards men whose guilt merited the most exemplary
punishment; for it was felt that they were being destroyed not for
the public good but to gratify the cruelty of an individual."
It is entirely unknown
who or what was the cause of the fire. Although our ancient sources (and
scholars) favor Nero as the arsonist, it is worth pointing out that
fires were common in ancient Rome. His famous Domus
Aurea ("Golden House") was part of his rebuilding plan.
Nero the artist and
the widower
In 65
Nero was involved in another scandal, considered more serious by the
people of that era than it would be now. It was considered shameful for
a Roman emperor to appear as a public entertainer,
acting, singing, and playing his lyre.
Hated by many citizens,
with an increasing list of political enemies, Nero started to appreciate
his loneliness, when in 65
he discovered the Pisonian
conspiracy (named after Gaius
Calpurnius Piso, who intended to take his place) and the involvement
of old friends like Seneca in the plot. Conspirators were forced
into suicide.
In addition, Nero ordered
that Gnaeus
Domitius Corbulo, a popular and valuable general, commit suicide
because of the mere suspicion of new threats. This decision moved
military commanders, locally and in the provinces, to start planning a revolution.
Also at about this time, according to tradition, Nero personally ordered
the crucifixion of Saint
Peter and, later, the beheading of Paul
of Tarsus.
In 66
Poppaea died, supposedly by the hand of Nero himself. The emperor left
for Greece
in 67, where he
amused his hosts with other artistic performances, while in Rome Nymphidius
(a colleague of Tigellinus, taking the place of one of the Pisonian
conspirators) was collecting the support of praetorians and Senators.
Suicide
Back in Rome after the tournée,
Nero found quite a cold atmosphere; Gaius Julius Vindex,
the governor of Gallia
Lugdunensis, revolted, and this brought Nero to a paranoid hunt for
eventual threats; in this state of mind he ordered the elimination of
any patrician
with suspect ideas. His (once) faithful servant Galba,
governor of Iberia
(Portugal
and Spain),
was one of those dangerous nobles,
so he ordered his death. Galba, lacking an alternative choice, declared
his loyalty to the Senate and the People of Rome (Senatus Populusque
Romanus: SPQR),
no longer recognizing Nero's power. Moreover, he started organizing his
own campaign for the empire.
As a result, Lucius
Clodius Macer, legate of the legion III
Augusta in Africa, revolted and stopped sending grain
to Rome. Nymphidius corrupted the imperial guard, which turned against
Nero on the promise of financial reward by Galba.
The Senate deposed Nero,
who committed suicide on June
9, 68. It
is said that he uttered these last words before stabbing himself in the
neck: "What an artist the world is losing in me!"/"What
an artist dies in me!" With his death, the Julio-Claudian
dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued in the Year
of the four emperors. |
